Giorgio Basciu. Photo: private

This study investigates the use of poetic word pairs such as ný ok nið (‘wax and wane’), líkna ok lækna (‘nurse and heal’), and lǫndum ok þegnum (‘lands and warriors’) in Old Norse poetry. These constructions are a common feature of Old Norse verse and the broader Germanic alliterative tradition, and have attracted scholarly attention since the 19th century. Despite over a hundred years of research, however, no consensus exists regarding their defining characteristics, scope, or functions.

Cover image: Sigurðr slays the dragon Fáfnir. Scene from the Hylestad Stave Church portal (Norway, 12th–13th c.).Photograph by Alexis Pantos, Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo (CC BY-SA 4.0).

An extensive review of previous scholarship reveals the limitations of existing definitions. Different terms – such as binomials, formulaic pairs, and twin formulas – reflect competing interpretations, often based on conflicting criteria. For example, some scholars confine poetic word pairs to the half-line, while others recognise instances that span the caesura or even the line break. Similarly, while many studies focus exclusively on pairs of single words, occasional references to multi-word conjuncts suggest a broader and more complex reality. This fragmentation and lack of clarity regarding the fundamental properties of poetic word pairs highlight the need for a reassessment of this poetic device within a more inclusive framework. 

To address these issues, this study outlines a comprehensive framework under the label of syndetic constructions. It encompasses the full range of manifestations documented in the literature while distinguishing the device from ordinary coordination through its ability to convey a unitary meaning or serve a unitary function. Applying this framework to a corpus of over 850 stanzas of Old Norse poetry, specifically the verses preserved in fornaldarsögur, the study identifies a selection of 425 syndetic constructions. These are systematically analysed in terms of metrical configuration, complexity, grammatical composition, and acoustic cohesion, among other properties.

The analysis reveals that syndetic constructions extend far beyond the traditional notion of poetic word pairs, ranging from simple instances confined to a single verse to more complex configurations spanning multiple verses. Additionally, the study explores the various ways in which conjuncts are acoustically connected, demonstrating a broader range of cohesion strategies than previously recognised. These include not only alliteration – long regarded as a typical trait of poetic word pairs – but also inrhyme and other phonetic patterns that enhance their cohesion and rhetorical impact. In addition to quantitative analyses, this study presents numerous examples, offering glimpses of the creative process of medieval skalds.

Both prototypical word pairs and more elaborate and extensive syndetic constructions appear pervasively across the corpus, in both eddic and, notably, skaldic verse, suggesting that they constitute an integral feature of Old Norse poetic practice. Their widespread use across diverse metres and poetic contexts highlights their continued productivity and adaptability, even as poetic traditions evolved.

By providing a unified framework and detailed classification, this study reconciles conflicting descriptions in previous scholarship and presents fresh insights into an ancient poetic device and the compositional practices of Old Norse poets. In doing so, it opens new avenues for research into the interplay of metre, syntax, and semantics in alliterative traditions across the Germanic languages.

Fulltext in Publication database DiVA: Word Pairs and Other Syndetic Constructions in Old Norse Poetry

Respondent: Giorgio Basciu

Opponent: Professor Lasse Mårtensson, Uppsala University

Supervisor: Associate Professor Jonatan Pettersson, Department of Swedish Language and Multilingualism

Supervisor: Associate Professor Jan Svanlund, Department of Swedish Language and Multilingualism